The year 1066 is a pivotal moment in English history. It marked the Norman Conquest, which had a profound impact on England.
The Norman Conquest, led by William, the Duke of Normandy, stands as a momentous military campaign in English history that brought about significant political, administrative, and social transformations in the British Isles. This conquest marked the culmination of a complex saga that had its origins during the reign of Edward the Confessor, the last monarch of the Anglo-Saxon royal line.
The complexity of this narrative stemmed from the death of King Edward, who passed away without a direct heir. This event triggered a fierce struggle for the English throne, as several contenders vied for the coveted position. The two most prominent claimants were Harold II, who was crowned King by the King's Council (the Witenagemot) following Edward's demise, and William, Duke of Normandy, who would earn the moniker "William the Conqueror."
William's assertion of his right to the English throne was grounded in Edward the Confessor's supposed promise to him in 1051, owing to the fact that they are distant cousins. Furthermore, he argued that Harold, who had sworn in 1064 to uphold William's claim to the throne, was acting as a usurper.
According to contemporary Norman sources, notably the Bayeux Tapestry, Harold was sent by Edward to Normandy to confirm Duke William as the king’s heir. While en route, Harold was shipwrecked and captured by Guy I of Ponthieu, one of William’s vassals. The duke demanded Harold’s release and may have ransomed him. Harold was warmly welcomed by William and joined him on a military campaign in Brittany. According to the Bayeux Tapestry and other Norman accounts, Harold also swore an oath of fealty to William and promised to protect William’s claim to the English throne.
Harold (right) swearing fealty to William, duke of Normandy, detail from the Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century; in the Musée de la Tapisserie, Bayeux, France.
Despite his promise of the throne to William, Edward from his deathbed designated Harold his heir. On January 5, 1066, Upon Edward's death, the King's Council affirmed Harold, Earl of Wessex, as King, despite his lack of royal lineage. This decision was influenced by the fear of rival claims from William and the King of Norway. In a swift move, Harold had himself crowned in Westminster Abbey on January 6, 1066, just a day after Edward's passing.
Meanwhile Tostig Godwinson, an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumbria and sibling of King Harold Godwinson, had been exiled by his brother, Harold. Tostig chose to support the Norwegian king, Harald Hardrada, in his invasion of England. Both Tostig and Hardrada met their demise at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066.
In 1051, Earl Tostig Godwin's opposition to Edward's policies had brought England to the brink of civil conflict. Eventually, the resistance of the Godwin family convinced Edward to exile them in 1051. The exiled Godwin family, including Gytha and Tostig, alongside Sweyn and Gyrth, sought refuge with their brother-in-law, the Count of Flanders. They returned to England the following year with armed forces, garnering support and pressing Edward to reinstate Tostig as an earl. Three years later, in 1055, upon the demise of Earl Siward, Tostig assumed the role of the Earl of Northumbria. He enjoyed a close relationship with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061, he journeyed to Rome in the company of Ealdred, the archbishop of York, to meet Pope Nicholas II.
Tostig's governance in Northumbria appeared to be fraught with challenges. He failed to gain popularity with the Northumbrian ruling class, which was comprised of a mix of Danish invaders and Anglo-Saxon survivors of the last Norse invasion. Tostig's rule was marked by harsh measures against those who opposed him, including the alleged murder of several members of leading Northumbrian families. In late 1063 or early 1064, Tostig had Gamal, the son of Orm, and Ulf, the son of Dolfin, assassinated when Gamal visited him under safe conduct. The Vita Edwardi, while generally sympathetic to Tostig, noted that he had "repressed [the Northumbrians] with the heavy yoke of his rule."
Tostig often found himself absent from King Edward's court in the south and, possibly, demonstrated a lack of leadership in countering Scottish raids. His friendship with the Scottish king complicated his efforts to raise local levies to counter these incursions. He resorted to employing a substantial force of Danish mercenaries known as housecarls, a costly and resented policy. The leaders of these housecarls were later killed by rebels.
Furthermore, local biases likely contributed to his unpopularity. Tostig hailed from the south of England, which had a distinct cultural identity compared to the north, where a southern earl had not been in power for many generations. In 1063, while still deeply embroiled in the intricate local politics of Northumbria, Tostig's popularity appeared to plummet. Many of the residents of Northumbria were Danes who had enjoyed lower taxation compared to other regions of England. However, the wars in Wales, which were largely beneficial to Tostig's constituents, required funding. Tostig had played a significant role in these campaigns, leading attacks in the north while his brother, Harold Godwinson, advanced from the south.
On October 3, 1065, the thegns of York and the rest of Yorkshire descended upon York, occupying the city. They executed officials and supporters of Tostig and subsequently declared him outlawed for his unlawful actions. They called upon Morcar, the younger brother of Edwin, Earl of Mercia, to support their cause. The northern rebels marched south to present their case to King Edward, joined by Earl Edwin and his forces at Northampton. It was there that they encountered Earl Harold, dispatched by King Edward to engage in negotiations with the rebels. At that point, Harold, who had risen to a prominent position within the king's council, likely recognized that Tostig would struggle to retain Northumbria. By the time he returned to Oxford, where the royal council was scheduled to convene on October 28, he had probably already made up his mind.
Harold Godwinson successfully persuaded King Edward the Confessor to accede to the rebels' demands. Tostig was outlawed shortly thereafter, possibly in early November, as he refused to accept his deposition as mandated by Edward. This marked the onset of a profound rift and animosity between the two Godwinson brothers. During a meeting of the king and his council, Tostig publicly accused Harold of instigating the rebellion. Harold's primary motivation was to unite England in the face of the impending threat from William of Normandy, who had openly declared his intention to seize the English throne. Although it is likely that Harold had exiled his brother with the aim of preserving peace and loyalty in the north, Tostig remained unconvinced and harboured intentions of revenge.
Tostig embarked on a journey with his family and a contingent of loyal thegns, seeking refuge with his brother-in-law, Baldwin V, Count of Flanders. He also attempted to forge an alliance with William, who was related to his wife. Baldwin provided him with a fleet, and Tostig landed on the Isle of Wight in May 1066, where he gathered resources and funds. He launched coastal raids that extended as far as Sandwich but was compelled to retreat when King Harold summoned land and naval forces. Tostig then moved northward and, after an unsuccessful effort to enlist his brother Gyrth's support, conducted raids in Norfolk and Lincolnshire. He suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the Earls Edwin and Morcar. Deserted by his followers, he sought refuge with his sworn brother, King Malcolm III of Scotland. Tostig spent the summer of 1066 in Scotland, forging contact with King Harald III Hardrada of Norway and persuading him to embark on an invasion of England.
One of the sagas asserts that Tostig sailed to Norway and significantly impressed the Norwegian king and his court, ultimately convincing a somewhat reluctant Hardrada, who had just concluded an extended and inconclusive war with Denmark, to assemble an army for the purpose of claiming the English throne. With Hardrada's support, Tostig sailed up the Humber and secured a victory against Morcar and Edwin at the Battle of Fulford.
The Battle of Fulford occurred on the outskirts of the village of Fulford, just to the south of York in England, on September 20, 1066. Hardrada's forces included allies from Orkney and a contingent led by Tostig, in addition to those arriving from Norway. They crossed the sea with a fleet of ships and established their base east of York at Ricall. On September 20, 1066, the Vikings advanced toward York. The relatively inexperienced Saxon army, under the leadership of Morcar at York and Edwin at Tadcaster, moved to obstruct the invaders. According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the two armies initially clashed on the left bank of the River Ouse, and the Saxons initially inflicted significant casualties on the Viking force. However, ultimately, the Norse army overwhelmed the Saxon forces, even though the earls survived. Following their victory, the Norwegians entered York to gather supplies and request hostages.
King Harold Godwinson raced northward with an English army from London to confront his brother Tostig. During his journey, he passed near Derby and called upon the people of Derby to join his cause. On September 25, 1066, they took Tostig by surprise at Stamford Bridge. Hardrada, Tostig, and many of their followers met their fate in this clash. The Norwegian forces and the Flemish mercenaries who had allied with Tostig lacked adequate armour and were armed only with personal weapons.
The weather was exceptionally warm, and they had not anticipated strong resistance. Additionally, Hardrada's formidable army of 11,000 had been divided, with a significant portion guarding the Norse ships, which were anchored miles away in Riccall.
Following his demise at Stamford Bridge, Tostig's body was laid to rest at York Minster. Tostig's two sons returned to Norway under the care of their foster kin, while his widow, Judith, wed Duke Welf of Bavaria. It doesn't seem as though Tostig was aiming to take the crown for himself. He seemed more interested in toppling his brother, while also restoring his own power. So it was a revenger's tragedy.
Meanwhile, the victorious Harold, commanding troops still fatigued from their previous confrontation with Tostig and Hardrada, headed south to face the Normans at the Battle of Hastings just nineteen days later. During a gruelling forced march south, Harold covered a remarkable distance of 250 miles in a mere nine days, rallying inexperienced reinforcements to augment his battle-weary veterans as they advanced to their next engagement.
In September 1066, William the Conqueror had set sail from Normandy with a formidable army, which enjoyed the support of Emperor Henry IV and papal approval. It took seven months of meticulous preparation and employed around 600 transport ships to convey approximately 7,000 troops, including 2,000-3,000 cavalry, across the English Channel.
On September 28, 1066, with favourable winds, William landed unopposed at Pevensey and quickly erected fortifications at Hastings.
The fateful Battle of Senlac, which occurred near Hastings on October 14 (957 years ago to the day of writing), witnessed Harold's battle-weary and undermanned army confronting William's cavalry, a crucial component of the forces transported across the Channel, complemented by skilled archers. Despite their fatigue, Harold's troops were numerically on par with the Normans, featuring the best infantry in Europe armed with formidable two-handled battle axes. They also enjoyed the tactical advantage of holding higher ground on a ridge overlooking the Norman positions.
The initial uphill assaults by the Normans faltered, and a rumour circulated that William had perished. To dispel this, William rode among his ranks, raising his helmet to confirm his survival. The battle was fiercely contested, with chroniclers describing the Norman counterattacks and the stalwart Saxon defence as a clash between one side's mobility and the other's unyielding resolve, akin to being firmly rooted in the soil. William lost three horses under him during the battle.
William displayed intelligent coordination of his archers and cavalry, assets lacking in the English forces. In the midst of a Norman assault, Harold met his end, struck by an arrow and subsequently felled by a mounted knight's sword. Two of his brothers also perished in the battle. The demoralised English forces scattered.
In 1070, as an act of penance, William ordered the construction of an abbey on the battlefield site, with the high altar marking the very spot where Harold fell. The remains of Battle Abbey, along with the town of Battle that emerged around it, continue to stand as a testament to this historic clash.
Battle Abbey Gatehouse
Ruins
On Christmas Day of the year 1066, the crowning of William took place at Westminster Abbey. Just three months after this momentous event, he displayed enough confidence to return to Normandy, entrusting the administration of the kingdom to two joint regents. One of these regents happened to be his half-brother, Odo, who held the position of Bishop of Bayeux and would go on to commission the renowned Bayeux Tapestry. However, it would be a six-year endeavour for William to firmly establish his conquest, and even then, he had to confront ceaseless plotting and conflict on both sides of the English Channel.
Bayeux Tapestry
In 1068, the illegitimate sons of Harold instigated raids along the southwestern coast of England. William's local commanders swiftly addressed these incursions. Concurrently, uprisings flared up in the Welsh Marches, Devon, and Cornwall. In response to these multifaceted challenges, William designated earls with the duty of safeguarding the vulnerable borders and preserving internal security across the kingdom. In return for their services, these earls received land grants.
The year 1069 witnessed a significant intrusion by the Danes, who, in collaboration with Prince Edgar the Aetheling, a descendant of Ethelred, and other English nobles, launched an invasion in the north and laid siege to the city of York. William took direct charge of the situation, momentarily pausing to suppress an uprising in Stafford. His actions forced the Danes to withdraw to their anchored ships along the Humber.
In a brutal and protracted campaign that extended into 1070, William systematically devastated Mercia and Northumbria. The primary objective was to deprive the Danes of essential supplies and to suppress any resurgence of English resistance. This campaign entailed the destruction of churches and monasteries and the laying waste to agricultural lands. The consequences were dire, resulting in a nine-year-long famine that afflicted the unarmed and predominantly peasant population.
While financial incentives prompted the Danes to abandon their northern incursion, King Sweyn of Denmark and his fleet remained a menace to the east coast, collaborating with various English factions, including Hereward the Wake. Eventually, a peace treaty was negotiated in June 1070.
Further to the north, where the border with Scotland remained disputed, King Malcolm III encroached into English territory. William responded with urgency, mobilising both land and naval forces to launch an invasion into Scotland. The Treaty of Abernethy in 1072 established a truce, further solidified by the acceptance of Malcolm's eldest son as a hostage.
After securing England, William, known as "the Conqueror," instituted far-reaching changes that reverberated across the land. He redistributed the manors held by most Saxon thanes, granting them to Norman knights who had supported his cause. Saxon Earl Siward faced dispossession of his holdings in Markeaton, Mackworth, and Allestree, with these estates conferred upon Hugh, who was elevated to the title of Earl of Chester by William.
Kedleston, previously owned by Godwin, came under the possession of one Gilbert, but this manor quickly transitioned to Richard de Curzon, the offspring of one of the knights who had served the Conqueror. Several Saxon proprietors of Derby properties found themselves supplanted by Normans. For instance, one of the churches had been under the ownership of Tochi, but following the conquest, it was held by Geoffrey Alselin. Earl Hugh of Chester had two residences and a fishery in the area, while Henry de Ferrers owned three houses.
However, not all Saxon landholders were dispossessed. Some retained their properties, as exemplified by a Saxon named Edric, who still maintained ownership of a church that had previously belonged to his father, Colin. Furthermore, the clergy in the region did not entirely become Norman, as a Saxon priest named Godwin held around 15 acres of land within the borough.
Nonetheless, the presence of a considerable number of Normans within and around Derby may not have been warmly received by the local populace. The sight of Richard de Curzon, clad in a suit of armor and an iron helmet, riding in from Kedleston with his lady, her hair styled in long plaits, and donning a brightly adorned cloak over a lengthy dress, might have piqued curiosity but may not have been greeted with enthusiasm. The prevalence of Norman-French being spoken in the market likely appeared more foreign than the use of Church Latin.
Derby Market Place in 1850, note you can still see the roads and layout from the map in the previous chapter, however none of these buildings would have been there at the time of the Normans.
In 1070, William brutally suppressed a rebellion in the north, leading his forces across the rugged Pennines to Chester. There, he engaged in a campaign of destruction, resulting in the slaughter of the local population and the incineration of their villages. Remarkably, during this terrifying incursion, William bypassed Derby, sparing it from the devastation of sackings and burnings.
Nonetheless, two decades following the Conquest, the repercussions of this tumultuous period were evident in the town's population. The Domesday surveyors, conducting their inquiry, encountered 103 vacant dwellings and noted the absence of four water-mills. In essence, Derby had lost half of its residents, and one-third of its houses stood deserted. The reasons behind this decline remain open to interpretation: it could have resulted from population losses during the conflicts, a decline in trade during times of turmoil, or a mass exodus driven by fear of William's rule or famine. What remains certain is that the town of Derby endured a hardship unparalleled in its history.
To cement his conquest, William initiated an extensive castle-building campaign in strategically significant areas. Initially, these fortifications took the form of wooden towers situated on earthen mounds, encircled by defensive earth ramparts known as baileys. With the passage of time, many of these structures were reconstructed in stone. At the culmination of William's reign, more than 80 castles had been erected across his realm, enduring as enduring symbols of the new Norman feudal order.
The memory of a castle remains in the names of Castle Fields (by the Midland Station in Derby) and of "Castle Ward," but who built it, and when, seems a mystery.
Castleward Derby
The region is currently known as Castleward, reflecting the name of the voting district. However, this designation traces its origins back to Castlefields, the ancient appellation for both the area and the later mansion. The term Castlefields itself harkens back to the enigmatic castle that once stood in Derby, of which no tangible remnants have survived, especially not since the Civil War. During that period, reports indicated the presence of a bank and ditch in the vicinity, roughly corresponding to the location of Albion Street today.
Generally, castles, even those that have completely vanished, tend to leave some form of historical documentation. This is partly because if these fortifications were not constructed by the Crown, they were typically authorised by influential nobles. Surprisingly, no extant documents shed light on the existence of a castle in Derby, although the evidence from place names from an early period is compelling enough to substantiate its presence. In many instances where such fortifications are not documented, they often turn out to be prehistoric in nature, frequently dating back to the Iron Age. However, this hypothesis appears highly improbable in the case of Derby, given the unfavourable topographical conditions.
Duffield Castle
Additionally, there existed a fortress known as Duffield Castle, a structure that approached the grandeur of the Tower of London in terms of size. It was Earl Ferrers who oversaw the construction of this formidable stone castle shortly after the Conquest. The involvement of residents from Derby in its construction would have given rise to much conversation, perhaps even some trepidation, as the local populace became aware of this colossal and unprecedented stronghold.
Duffield Castle 2021
Bolsover Castle in Chesterfield, Derbyshire it is still relatively standing.
Bolsover Castle
The castle was founded in the late 11th century by William Peveril, one of William the Conqueror's knights, but it was neglected from the mid-14th century. Its ruins provided the setting for the Castle begun in 1612 by Sir Charles Cavendish as a retreat from his principal seat at Welbeck, a few miles away.
The design of the Castle was intended to evoke a Norman great tower, which it clearly resembles viewed from a distance, rising sheer from the cliff. The interior continues the impression, with massive round Romanesque vaults in the basement and pointed Gothic ones on the entrance floor. The great windows of the upper floors were designed to give panoramic views across the landscape.
Peveril Castle
Peveril Castle is a ruined 11th-century castle overlooking the village of Castleton in Derbyshire. It was the main settlement (or caput) of the feudal barony of William Peverel, known as the Honour of Peverel, and was founded sometime between the Norman Conquest of 1066 and its first recorded mention in the Domesday Survey of 1086, by Peverel, who held lands in Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire as a tenant-in-chief of the king. The town became the economic centre of the barony. The castle has views across the Hope Valley and Cave Dale.
Codnor Castle
Codnor Castle is a ruined 13th-century castle in Derbyshire, England. The land around Codnor came under the jurisdiction of William Peverel after the Norman conquest.
Today the remnants of Codnor Castle are a fragile ruin; its few remaining high walls are well visited. The site is now privately owned. Public access is managed by The Codnor Castle Heritage Trust; access can be arranged by contacting the Trust.
There are public footpaths to the Castle from Codnor Market Place, where there is an information board in partnership with Derbyshire County Council, as well as public footpaths from the east in the Erewash valley.
In June 2007, Channel 4's Time Team programme carried out an archaeological dig around the castle. A perfectly preserved gold noble of Henry V was found in the moat and is now displayed at Derby Museum and Art Gallery.
Sutton Scarsdale Hall, Chesterfield, Derbyshire
The original Hall formed part of a Saxon estate owned by Wulfric Spott, who died in 1002 and left the estate to Burton-on-Trent Abbey. In the Domesday Book the estate was owned by Roger de Poitou. In 1225 the Lordship of Sutton-in-the-Dale had been given by King Henry III to Peter de Hareston, but by 1401 it had been purchased by John Leke of Gotham.
A later John Leke was made a knight by King Henry VIII. His son Francis Leke was created a Baronet by King James I in 1611, and elevated to Earl of Scarsdale by King Charles I in 1640. When the English Civil War broke out, Leke joined the Cavaliers and the Hall's structure was strengthened, particularly so with Bolsover Castle on the opposite hillside swearing loyalty to the Roundheads. When a Parliamentarian force of 500 men led by Sir John Gell surrounded the estate, Leke resisted until the house was stormed and he was taken prisoner. With the estate seized by Oliver Cromwell's forces, after the end of the war a forfeiture fine of £18,000 was levied and paid for Leke's support of the imprisoned King Charles.
Haddon Hall, Bakewell Derbyshire
Haddon Hall is an English country house on the River Wye near Bakewell, Derbyshire, a former seat of the Dukes of Rutland. It is the home of Lord Edward Manners (brother of the incumbent Duke) and his family. In form a medieval manor house, it has been described as "the most complete and most interesting house of its period".
The origins of the hall date to the 11th century. William Peverel held the manor of Haddon in 1087, when the survey which resulted in the Domesday Book was undertaken. Though it was never a castle, the manor of Haddon was protected by a wall after a licence to build one was granted in 1194. The hall was forfeited to the Crown in 1153 and later passed to a tenant of the Peverils, the Avenell family. Sir Richard de Vernon acquired the manor in 1170 after his marriage to Avice Avenell, the daughter of William Avenell. The Vernons built most of the hall, except for the Peveril Tower and part of the Chapel, which preceded them, and the Long Gallery, which was built in the 16th century.
Like many of these ancient halls, Castles and houses, it has been used countless times in modern day media including in Cary Fukunaga's 2011 film of Jane Eyre.
End view of the surviving wall section of Melbourne Castle in Melbourne, Derbyshire.
There is an old tradition that the manor was originally established in about the year 900, during the reign of Alfred the Great, but there is no evidence for this. As recorded in the Domesday Book, the manor of Melbourne and its lands were the property of King Edward the Confessor prior to the Norman Conquest. The property then passed into the hands of William I of England. After creating the Diocese of Carlisle in 1133, Henry I gave the manor for life to Æthelwold, the first bishop. Some time later, the diocese built a palace nearby on the site of what is now Melbourne Hall. When Bishop Æthelwold died in about 1156, the manor reverted to the crown.
Melbourne Castle painted around 1580
There are other castles in the region and stately homes. I believe only the above-mentioned dates from this period in history.
